The history of spatial planning in Bulgaria, in its modern sense (after World War II), can be divided into two main periods, reflecting the country’s political development: the socialist period (1944–1989) and the transitional/post-socialist period (after 1989).

During the socialist period (1944–1989), the People’s Republic of Bulgaria was heavily influenced by the Soviet Union, including in spatial planning and architecture. This period was marked by legal and constitutional changes based on the Soviet model, centralised control by the ruling Communist Party over all branches of government, nationalisation of private property, and intensive urbanisation, which had a significant impact on mountainous and border regions. Large residential complexes were developed to address urban housing shortages, and multiple administrative reforms were carried out. The economy was centrally planned, prioritising rapid industrialisation. The planning process was highly centralised and technocratic, aligned with national economic goals and shaped by Soviet expertise, with no civic participation. The Planned Construction of Settlements Act (1949) was the first legislation to address planning issues beyond urban areas. In 1973, the Spatial and Urban Planning Act was adopted, introducing key instruments such as the Unified Spatial Development Plan of Bulgaria (Simeonova 2017).

The 1990s brought radical political, social and economic changes, significantly accelerating and reshaping spatial development and planning. This period saw the restoration and privatisation of property, the return of expropriated land, and a surge in private construction, particularly in large cities and tourist centres – often at the expense of green spaces, parks and agricultural land. Challenges such as illegal construction, reduced public sector investment, urban overcrowding (especially in Sofia), and inadequate infrastructure for increasing international transit traffic emerged. A shortage of qualified professionals in municipal planning departments coincided with administrative and financial decentralisation efforts, including administrative reforms in 1999 and the establishment of six NUTS 2 regions in 2000. Bulgaria’s first interactions with the European Union also began during this time. It became clear that the existing planning legislation and tools, developed under a different system, were outdated.

In the first two decades of the transition, numerous laws were enacted concerning the administrative structure, property rights, the environment and the cadastre. However, the Regional Development Act/RDA (1999) and the Spatial Planning Act/SPA (2001) became the key legislative frameworks for planning. These acts have undergone multiple amendments, including adjustments to align with EU requirements since Bulgaria’s accession in 2007. They differ in focus: the RDA emphasises economic planning, while the SPA focuses on physical planning. The Council of Ministers and the Ministry of Regional Development and Public Works became the leading institutions overseeing spatial planning.

In recent decades, however, the Bulgarian case has become increasingly complex, reflecting not only national institutional reforms but also broader European trends in spatial planning. This complexity mirrors a wider European tendency towards more strategic approaches to planning, particularly given the absence of EU-level powers in this field. While the SPA provides the principal legal foundation for regulating land use, numerous other acts – including the Regional Development Act, the Environmental Protection Act, the Water Act, the Forests Act and the Black Sea Coast Act – also influence planning practices. Since 2020, the RDA has gained a leading role by integrating strategic and spatial dimensions, although this has generated overlaps between regulatory and strategic functions. A reconsideration of this interplay is essential for understanding the Bulgarian case in the broader European context. Comparative research highlights that Central and Eastern European countries face similar challenges in balancing the regulatory and strategic dimensions of planning, especially regarding the role of local-level instruments and the values embedded in legal frameworks (Nowak et al. 2022; Nowak et al. 2023; Nowak et al. 2024; Simeonova/Nowak 2024). Moreover, recent studies on regional development governance in post-transition EU member states emphasise the growing importance of networking and institutional capacity (Drvenkar et al. 2024). Finally, insights from the ESPON COMPASS project underline the importance of planning cultures, governance structures and instruments in shaping these dynamics across Europe (Nadin et al. 2018).

The term ‘spatial planning’ is not explicitly mentioned in the current Constitution of the Republic of Bulgaria. However, the Constitution mandates the state to promote balanced regional development and support local authorities through financial, credit and investment policies (Article 20) (Bulgarian Parliament n.d.).

The main legal reference for spatial planning in Bulgaria remains the Spatial Planning Act (Закон за устройство на територията, 2001), which regulates land-use planning, construction and urban development. However, spatial planning issues are also addressed across a wide range of sectoral legislative frameworks, such as the Black Sea Coast Act, the Environmental Protection Act, the Forests Act, the Water Act, the Roads Act, the Railway Transport Act and numerous secondary ordinances, which together shape the broader discourse on territorial governance (Nowak et al. 2023). The Black Sea Coast Act is particularly significant, as it introduces specific rules for coastal zones where pressures from tourism, conservation and energy development often generate conflicts and highlight the fragmented nature of spatial planning in Bulgaria.

In recent years, ongoing discussions on the effectiveness of regional and spatial development policies, the need for reforms in key planning documents, inconsistencies in the structure and powers of planning bodies, and efforts to reduce long-standing interregional and intraregional disparities have led to major amendments in the Regional Development Act (RDA) (adopted in March 2020). A significant outcome of these amendments is that the RDA was positioned as the leading legal framework for strategic spatial planning, integrating both regional and spatial dimensions into a unified system of planning documents. While the SPA continues to provide the regulatory basis for physical planning, the revised RDA now streamlines planning instruments and enhances coherence between territorial development, sectoral policies and the reduction of regional disparities (Ministry of Regional Development and Public Works 2022).

The revised RDA aims to:

• Align planning documents with specific challenges at each administrative level.

• Strengthen coordination between strategic planning documents and key sectoral policies.

• Enhance monitoring, control and evaluation processes, including the use of GIS.

• Optimise the structure and expand the powers of regional development councils.

• Entrust the development of national and regional strategic documents to a specialised state-controlled company, the National Centre for Regional Development (Национален център за териториално развитие).

• Improve conditions in areas with socio-economic, geographical and demographic disadvantages (Ministry of Regional Development and Public Works 2022).

In Bulgaria, the governance of spatial planning is shaped by two key legislative frameworks: the RDA and SPA. While the RDA has served as the primary legal framework for strategic planning since its major revision in 2020, the SPA (2001) continues to provide the main legal foundation for physical planning and construction regulation. This dual framework reflects the coexistence of strategic (socio-economic and regional) and physical (territorial and urban) planning, often creating overlaps between the two systems. Against this background, the following section outlines the planning authorities and their interdependencies across national, regional, district and local levels.

Chapter 4 of the current RDA defines the main planning authorities and their responsibilities.

At the national level, the Council of Ministers serves as the primary authority, adopting national and regional strategic planning documents based on proposals from the Minister of Regional Development and Public Works. Ministers and department heads integrate these planning documents into their respective sectoral policies. The Minister of Regional Development and Public Works plays a key coordinating role in:

• Implementing state regional development policy and aligning it with sectoral and horizontal policies.
• Defining the integration of sustainable urban development strategies at all levels.
• Overseeing the preparation and implementation of national and regional strategic planning documents.
• Coordinating the implementation of EU-funded operational programmes.
• Ensuring the harmonisation of Bulgarian legislation with EU regulations in regional development and spatial planning (Ministry of Regional Development and Public Works 2022).

To support these responsibilities, the Minister may establish expert councils and working groups. As of early 2025, such advisory bodies include the Public Council, Council of Regional Policy, Consultative Council, Expert Consultative Council on Geo-Protection, etc. Another key coordinating structure is the Political Cabinet, which connects the ministry with other government bodies, local authorities, parliament and the public. The Political Cabinet may include expert advisors, technical assistants and civil servants (Ministry of Regional Development and Public Works 2023).

At the regional level (NUTS 2), Regional Development Councils (RDCs) are responsible for implementing state regional development policies (Article 18). Each RDC, chaired by a regional governor, includes local mayors and Municipal Council chairpersons. The RDC:

• Approves and monitors the implementation of Integrated Territorial Development Strategies.
• Provides advisory input for municipal integrated development plans (Article 19).

At the district level (NUTS 3), regional governors assist municipal administrations in developing and implementing their plans for integrated development. They also support project preparation in alignment with regional strategic objectives. As chairs of their respective RDCs, governors establish standing commissions in various sectors, including spatial planning, industry, transport, environment, healthcare and education (Ministry of Regional Development and Public Works 2022).

At the local level, municipal mayors and Municipal Councils play key roles (Articles 23–24).

• Mayors oversee the development, implementation and monitoring of local strategic plans and ensure transparency.
• Municipal Councils discuss and adopt these plans, verify their compliance with the master spatial plan, and review mayors’ annual reports on implementation (Ministry of Regional Development and Public Works 2022).

In parallel with the provisions of the RDA, the SPA (2001) regulates the authorities and responsibilities related to physical and regulatory planning. At the national level, the Council of Ministers and the Minister of Regional Development and Public Works have central functions (Articles 2 and 3). The Minister, in coordination with the Minister of Environment and Water, the Minister of Culture, and the Minister of Health, issues ordinances defining the scope and content of spatial plans (Article 117). The Council of Ministers approves general and detailed spatial plans of national importance.

At the district level, regional governors act as intermediaries, ensuring that spatial plans comply with the law and coordinating their implementation within their catchment areas (Article 4).

At the municipal level, the strongest responsibilities are concentrated. Municipal Councils, on the proposal of the mayor, decide on the preparation of general and detailed spatial plans (Article 124), while the mayor, together with the chief architect, organises their preparation and supervises their implementation. The chief architect is the key professional authority at the local level, responsible for issuing planning permits, coordinating the planning process and overseeing compliance with the legal framework (Article 5).

In addition to these authorities, the SPA (2001) establishes a system of expert advisory councils at different levels (Article 6). At the national level, the National Expert Council on Spatial Development supports the Minister of Regional Development and Public Works in reviewing and approving general and detailed spatial plans of national importance. At the district level, Regional Expert Councils operate under the authority of the regional governor, while at the municipal level, Municipal Expert Councils advise mayors and chief architects. These bodies include representatives from professional chambers, academia and the relevant administrations. Their role is to provide technical expertise, ensure professional consultation, and enhance the legitimacy and coordination of planning decisions across different territorial levels.

Thus, the SPA defines a hierarchical but interdependent system in which national bodies provide the legal and procedural framework, regional governors ensure compliance, and municipalities exercise decisive powers for the preparation and application of spatial plans. Since 2020, this regulatory framework has been complemented by the RDA, which provides the strategic dimension, while the SPA remains the basis for regulatory and procedural aspects of spatial planning in Bulgaria.

While the instruments under the RDA define the strategic framework for regional and local development, the SPA (2001) provides the legally binding regulatory instruments of spatial planning. In this sense, Bulgarian planning practice operates with two complementary sets of instruments: strategic documents under the RDA, aimed at integrating regional and spatial development, and regulatory plans under the SPA, which directly govern land use and construction at the local level.

According to the latest changes in the RDA from 2020, the instruments for regional strategic development planning have been reduced to three. Their main purpose is to integrate regional and spatial development to reduce territorial imbalances, considering the potential of different areas and supporting cross-border, transnational and interregional cooperation. These documents help identify problems, needs and opportunities for regional and local development, prioritise projects that contribute to national development goals, coordinate sectoral policies, and ensure alignment with national strategic planning (Ministry of Regional Development and Public Works 2022).

(1) The first and most important document is the National Concept for Regional and Spatial Development (NCRSD), which serves as the main national document for integrated regional and spatial development. It is developed for a period of up to 15 years by the National Centre for Regional Development under the supervision of the Minister of Regional Development and Public Works and is adopted by the Council of Ministers. The NCRSD defines the long-term goals and priorities of the state policy for regional development, strategies for territorial development, and its connection with neighbouring countries and regions. It takes into account the Maritime Spatial Plan of Bulgaria, international strategies and national policies. The NCRSD contains an analysis of demographic, economic and environmental conditions, forecasts, alternative scenarios and strategic guidelines for the development of different types of territory, including urbanised, rural and protected areas. It also outlines the functional-hierarchical structure of the settlement network, transport corridors and major infrastructure projects (Ministry of Regional Development and Public Works 2022).

(2) The second planning instrument is the Integrated Territorial Development Strategies (ITDS), which apply to the NUTS 2 planning regions and cover a period of seven years, coinciding with the EU programming periods. These strategies are developed by the National Centre for Regional Development, approved by the Regional Development Councils (RDCs), and adopted by the Council of Ministers. The ITDS set medium-term priorities for regional and local development, ensuring coordination with the NCRSD and sectoral policies. They assess the economic, social and environmental situation of the region, identify key development priorities and take into account investment plans. The strategies also define urbanised and rural areas, major and minor transport corridors, protected territories, and specific zones with unique development challenges. The National Centre for Regional Development, with its 60 years of experience, plays a key role in integrating national and regional strategies in areas such as economic development, education, healthcare, transport, energy and environmental protection (Ministry of Regional Development and Public Works 2022).

(3) The third and most localised planning instrument is the Plan for Integrated Development (PID), which focuses on the municipal level and also covers a seven-year period. These plans are adopted by Municipal Councils on the proposal of the mayor and are then presented to the Regional Development Council (NUTS 3). The PIDs set the medium-term goals and priorities for municipal development and ensure coordination with neighbouring municipalities and the regional ITDS. They provide a framework for aligning economic, social and environmental policies, ensuring a balanced approach to municipal growth. The plans contain an analysis of the local situation, strategic goals, stakeholder participation mechanisms and monitoring indicators to track their implementation (Ministry of Regional Development and Public Works 2022).

The introduction of these three planning documents aims to create a more integrated, strategic and effective approach to regional and local development in Bulgaria, ensuring that national priorities align with local and regional needs while promoting territorial cooperation and sustainable development.

The methodological guidelines for developing and implementing PIDs, adopted by the Ministry of Regional Development and Public Works in 2020, emphasise the principles of partnership, cooperation, transparency and public participation. The process requires identifying all stakeholders and participants involved in shaping and implementing local policies for integrated sustainable development. It is essential that stakeholders are actively engaged not only during the development and adoption of the PID but also throughout the implementation of its goals and priorities. The plan must be discussed and coordinated with various groups, including interested institutions and organisations, economic and social partners, representatives of businesses relevant for municipal development, civil society and environmental organisations. Special attention is given to ensuring the participation of organisations that promote social inclusion, human rights, the rights of people with disabilities, gender equality and non-discrimination (Ministry of Regional Development and Public Works 2020a).

In addition to the strategic planning instruments defined by the RDA, the Spatial Planning Act (SPA, 2001) provides the main legally binding instruments for spatial planning at the local level. These include the General Spatial Plans (GSPs) and the Detailed Spatial Plans (DSPs) (Articles 103–136).

The GSPs define the overall spatial structure of a municipality, including zoning, land use and the functional organisation of units of land. They establish the long-term framework for the development of settlements and land, ensuring compatibility between residential, industrial, transport, agricultural, forest and protected areas. Importantly, GSPs are legally binding and serve as the basis for all subsequent planning, investment and construction activities.

The DSPs, subordinate to the GSPs, translate their provisions into detailed regulations at the level of specific land plots or units (e.g. neighbourhoods, streets, or industrial zones). They are mandatory for the approval and implementation of investment projects, as they define precise boundaries, building parameters, infrastructure solutions and land-use functions. In this sense, DSPs represent the operational level of spatial planning, providing legal certainty for both public authorities and private stakeholders. In practice, discrepancies sometimes arise when DSPs are adopted in the absence of an approved General Plan, a practice commonly referred to as ‘piecemeal planning’.

The PIDs, adopted under the RDA, function as strategic instruments at the municipal level. Although not legally binding in terms of land use, they guide medium-term socio-economic and spatial priorities. Ideally, PIDs should be aligned both with the Integrated Territorial Development Strategy (ITDS) of the NUTS 2 region and with the General Spatial Plan of the municipality, thereby bridging the gap between strategic objectives and regulatory land-use frameworks.

Together, these instruments demonstrate the dual nature of the Bulgarian planning system:

-Binding regulatory instruments at the local level: GSPs and DSPs under the SPA.

-Non-binding strategic instruments with spatial dimensions: NCRSD (national), ITDS (regional/NUTS 2), and PID (local) under the RDA.

Despite these improvements, challenges remain in articulating strategic and regulatory instruments. For instance, the frequent practice of approving detailed spatial plans in the absence of a general spatial plan has led to piecemeal development and legal ambiguities at the municipal level. Moreover, informal actors such as NGOs, environmental groups and municipal associations often play a role in shaping planning outcomes, complementing the formal hierarchy of instruments by raising public concerns and influencing decision-making processes.

Use of ‘soft planning’

A recent example of ‘soft’ and non-statutory planning is the 2019 update of the National Concept for Spatial Development (NCSD), in which areas at risk (demographic, economic, ecological) and areas for protection (landscape, natural and cultural values) were revised and expanded with new informal areas. The concept defines these informal areas as a spatial system of functionally connected regions, characterised by common or similar conditions and development goals. The identification of these areas reflects a shift from a ‘sectoral approach’ to an ‘integrated territorial approach,’ which focuses on utilising local resources and the potential of functionally defined territories while promoting the spatial integration of public measures.

Thus, the national spatial development policy aims to formulate its goals and instruments based on the specific characteristics of individual functional areas, seeking to maximise their potential. In the 2019 NCSD, these areas with specific characteristics, challenges and opportunities fall into two main categories: a group of areas with a social orientation (eight groups covering a total of 55 municipalities from 18 administrative regions) and a group of areas designated for stimulated development (three primary urbanisation axes and one potential axis). Identifying these areas allows for a more focused implementation of sectoral policy priorities, though without legally binding obligations. This, in turn, opens pathways for targeted and integrated policies that preserve their uniqueness while addressing accumulated challenges.

These informal areas include coastal zones (along the Black Sea and the Danube), mountainous regions, border areas, areas at risk (natural, ecological, demographic and economic), and areas designated for the conservation of landscapes, as well as natural and cultural heritage. The Danube and Black Sea coastal areas are formally recognised and have internationally established strategic development documents, whereas other informal areas remain problematic. Although there are some differences between the NCSD and international documents regarding the territorial scope of informal coastal zones (with the NCSD considering only municipalities directly bordering the Danube and the Black Sea as informal), future priorities will align with the latest international strategic documents (Ministry of Regional Development and Public Works 2020).

An example of the European Union’s influence on the Bulgarian planning system is the introduction of regionalisation in accordance with the common classification of territorial units for statistical purposes (NUTS). As of the beginning of 2025, Bulgaria is divided into two NUTS 1 regions, six NUTS 2 regions, 28 NUTS 3 regions, and 265 LAU 1 municipalities (Eurostat n.d.). The NUTS 1 and NUTS 2 regions are not formal administrative-territorial units but are used for statistical purposes. In terms of spatial planning, no specific policies or separate strategic and planning documents are developed for NUTS 1 regions. However, in 2020, NUTS 2 regions replaced the 28 NUTS 3 regions as the primary regional level in Bulgaria’s planning system.

Changes in Bulgaria’s spatial development policy, particularly after joining the EU, can be seen in several key areas. These include the introduction of two new acts – the Regional Development Act (RDA) and the Spatial Planning Act (SPA) –during the pre-accession period, as well as an institutional framework adjustment based on the principle of subsidiarity. The role of the regions has been strengthened, with new principles guiding regional planning and programming, improved coordination of sectoral policies, and the introduction of new, hierarchically related planning and strategic instruments. Additionally, EU funding programmes have gained significant importance, cross-border cooperation has expanded, and environmental protection has become an increasingly integral part of the planning process.

Spatial planning in Bulgaria faces several key challenges. One of the most pressing issues is the uneven distribution of the population and economic activity, with excessive concentration in the capital while disadvantaged regions continue to experience depopulation. The legal framework is frequently changing, and the planning system remains highly centralised, with strong national-level control and weak decentralisation.

Other challenges include excessive construction and overcrowding in large cities and resorts and an underestimation of environmental factors in planning decisions. Conflicts are especially visible in coastal and mountain areas, where the Black Sea Coast Act and other sectoral regulations shape land use under strong pressure from tourism, energy and conservation interests. These overlaps between sectoral legislation and spatial planning instruments frequently result in inconsistencies, fragmented practices and contested development outcomes. Transport infrastructure, particularly for international transit traffic, remains insufficient, and small settlements often struggle with infrastructural deficiencies. Additionally, the workforce and decision-makers frequently lack the necessary skills, and control over spatial development is relatively weak.

Until 2020, Bulgaria had an excessive number of strategic planning documents with weak coordination between them. Public participation in the planning process remains limited, and in smaller municipalities, decision-making is often influenced by personal connections, such as friendships and family ties. Moreover, participation is still understood mainly as a legal requirement rather than as a set of established practices that ensure meaningful involvement. Deficiencies in transparency, limited public access to planning information and procedures, and the slow adoption of digital tools further undermine inclusive governance. Expanding participatory mechanisms and linking them to broader processes of democratisation and digitalisation remain among the most urgent challenges for Bulgarian spatial planning. Municipalities also face financial constraints, further hindering effective spatial planning and development.

Bulgaria’s planning culture has been shaped by significant historical, social and political transitions, influencing its spatial planning practices and priorities. Early urban planning efforts date back to the late 19th and early 20th centuries, with influences from Russian, Austrian and German planning traditions. During the socialist period (1944–1989), centralised planning dominated, prioritising industrialisation, urbanisation and large-scale infrastructure projects. However, this era also led to imbalances, such as the overdevelopment of certain regional centres, the depopulation of rural areas, and limited public participation in decision-making.

The transition to a market economy after 1989 introduced new democratic governance structures and European integration processes, which significantly influenced planning policies. The shift towards decentralisation, public participation and alignment with EU planning frameworks reshaped Bulgaria’s spatial planning system. Today, planning practices emphasise regional development, urban regeneration, environmental sustainability and policy coherence, though challenges remain in balancing economic growth with environmental protection and addressing regional disparities. The planning system continues to evolve, integrating principles of strategic spatial planning, cross-border cooperation and sustainable urban development while facing demographic and socio-economic challenges. Beyond the formal legal framework, spatial planning outcomes are also shaped by informal practices, including the role of NGOs, environmental groups and municipal associations.

At the same time, Bulgaria’s planning culture is strongly influenced by fragmented practices and recurrent conflicts that reflect broader regional trends in Central and Eastern Europe. The peripheries of large cities, particularly Sofia, often experience uncoordinated suburbanisation and piecemeal planning, which creates mismatches between infrastructure capacity and settlement expansion. Agricultural areas are another arena of tension, as land-use changes and investment pressures frequently conflict with food production and landscape preservation. Coastal and mountain territories illustrate the most acute sectoral pressures: tourism, property development, energy projects and conservation interests frequently overlap, producing construction booms in the absence of adequate spatial plans. These conflicts expose weaknesses in the articulation between strategic and regulatory instruments, as well as the limited effectiveness of public participation and enforcement mechanisms. In this respect, the Bulgarian case demonstrates how planning culture is shaped not only by legislation and institutional design but also by contested practices, competing interests and governance gaps, which continue to challenge the coherence and sustainability of spatial development.

The demand for planning professionals has been steadily increasing over the past two to three decades. A review of academic programmes reveals that in most universities, the education of future planning specialists aligns with the institution’s core academic focus, such as architecture, regional development, urbanism and regional economics. In Bulgaria, the five universities listed offer planning-related programmes across all three educational levels – Bachelor’s, Master’s and doctorate. These institutions and their respective departments include:

 – Department of Urban Planning, Faculty of Architecture, University of Architecture, Civil Engineering and Geodesy (Sofia) (https://uacg.bg/page/fakulteti-i-departament). Focus areas: Regional and spatial planning, urbanism and landscape planning.

 – Departments of Regional and Political Geography, Geospatial Systems and Technologies, and Regional Development, Faculty of Geology and Geography, Sofia University (https://web.gea.uni-sofia.bg/). Focus areas: Spatial planning, regional development and geospatial technologies.

 – Department of Regional Development, Faculty of Management and Administration, University of National and World Economy (Sofia) (https://www.unwe.bg/en/structure/render/194). Focus areas: Regional and spatial development, territorial and administrative organisation, and regional economy.

 – Department of Architecture and Urban Studies, Faculty of Architecture, Varna Free University (Varna) (https://www.vfu.bg/faculties/faculty-of-architecture-2.html). Focus areas: Architecture, design, construction and urban planning.

 – Department of Urban Planning, Theory, and History of Architecture, Faculty of Architecture, Higher School of Civil Engineering (Sofia) (https://vsu.bg/arch-structura/#katedri). Focus areas: Urbanism, landscape architecture and urban planning.

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